Chromium – Cr
- Základná charakteristika
- Biologické a vedecké súvislosti
- Prejavy nedostatku
- Následky predávkovania
- Prírodné zdroje
- Odporúčaná denná dávka (ODD)
- Vzájomné interakcie
- Literatúra
Základná charakteristika
Chróm je esenciálny minerál prijímaný v potrave. V stopových množstvách sa nachádza v rastlinách a hlavne v zrne. V ľudskom tele reguluje inzulín a niekedy sa podáva na zlepšenie pôsobenia inzulínu. U ľudí s normálnou alebo zvýšenou hladinou chrómu sa však jeho suplementáciou nedosiahne žiadny efekt. Hlavný mechanizmus pôsobenia chrómu je zviazaný s chromodulínom, bielkovinou, ktorá zlepšuje signalizáciu na inzulínových receptoroch. Ak je tejto bielkoviny nedostatok, alebo je poškodená, tak je značne znížená aj schopnosť inzulínu pracovať v tele.
Biologické a vedecké súvislosti
Chróm nie je dobre absorbovaný z potravy a jeho absorpcia je negatívne korelovaná s jeho množstvom v prijatej potrave. Najefektívnejšia absorpcia (okolo 2 %) sa zistila pri dávkach menších ako 10 µg.(51) Zvyšovaním dávky sa jeho vstrebávanie zhoršuje. Pri dávkach nad 40 µg sa vstrebáva iba 0,4-0,5 % chrómu.(51)(52) Vstrebávanie chrómu zlepšuje prítomnosť aminokyselín v potrave, prítomnosť vitamínu C a kyseliny nikotínovej.(2) Takisto nedostatok zinku zvyšuje vstrebávanie chrómu.(54) To naznačuje, že tieto dva prvky by si mohli konkurovať pri vstrebávaní.
Distribúcia chrómu v tele
Transferín je proteín, o ktorý prenáša rôzne dvoj- a trojmocné ióny (napr. železo) a bolo zistené, že sa viaže aj s trojmocným chrómom, pričom dokáže naviazať 2 takéto ióny.(57)(58)(59) Predpokladá sa, že transferín dodáva chróm na oligopeptid chromodulín.(60)
Vylučovanie
Chróm sa vylučuje močom. Jeho suplementácia vyúsťuje do zvýšeného vylučovania v obličkách.(56)
Dĺžka života
Zistilo sa, že u potkanov má chróm výrazný proti-starnúci účinok. Tento účinok sa pripisuje zníženiu hladín glukózy z inzulínu, ktoré sa vekom prirodzene zvyšujú.(65)(66)(67) Limitované štúdie na ľuďoch naznačujú, že omladzujúce účinky má chróm iba v spojení s nedostatkom stravy.(68)(69)
Príjem potravy
Chróm redukuje príjem potravy u potkanov a podobný efekt sa pozoroval aj u ľudí, ale nie je jasné, či tento efekt nie je špecifický iba pre niektoré populácie.(78) U potkanov sa zdá, že redukcia príjmu potravy je spôsobená priamo v mozgu, pôsobením chrómu na neurotransmitery, ktoré kontrolujú apetít a potravné správanie.(73)(77)
Kardiovaskulárny systém
Nízke hodnoty chrómu sa u mužov spájajú so zvýšeným rizikom kardiovaskulárnych ochorení.(85) Suplementácia chrómu má pozitívny vplyv na parametre krivky EKG u ľudí postihnutých cukrovkou druhého typu.(86)(87)(88)
U diabetikov sa v dôsledku narušenej glukózovej homeostázy často objavujú abnormality na membráne červených krviniek, ktoré sú spôsobené oxidačným poškodením.(90) Pri in vitro pokusoch bolo zistené, že prítomnosť chrómu dokázala ochrániť membránu červených krviniek aj pri vysokej koncentrácii glukózy a obmedziť jej oxidačné poškodenia.(91)
Meta-analýza vplyvu 3 mesačnej suplementácie chrómu u diabetikov (cukrovka 2. typu) nepreukázala žiadny významný efekt na zlepšenie celkového cholesterolu, HDL, LDL ani vLDL cholesterolu. Podobne sa nepreukázal žiadny vplyv na triglyceridy.(92)
U diabetikov, ktorí počas 16 týždňov konzumovali denne 200 µg chrómu (v podobe chloridu) sa významne znížila hladina glukózy a inzulínu a tiež sa zvýšila senzitivita inzulínových receptorov. Avšak tieto pozitívne efekty sa prejavili iba u mužov.(94)
Predpokladá sa, že dopĺňaním chrómu do organizmu sa môže zlepšiť citlivosť inzulínových receptorov u ľudí, ktorí sú už rezistentní voči pôsobeniu inzulínu.(56)(116) Predpokladá sa, že k zlepšeniu citlivosti inzulínových receptorov dochádza vďaka chromodulínu, ktorý zlepšuje signalizáciu inzulínu.(61)(96) J o samotnom chróme sa uvažuje ako o látke, ktorá zlepšuje citlivosť inzulínových receptorov, ale princíp jeho pôsobenia sa zdá byť iný ako chromodulínu a na dosiahnutie rovnakého efektu potrebuje oveľa vyššiu koncentráciu ako chromodulín. Zdá sa, že chróm neovplyvňuje inzulínové receptory priamo ako to dokáže chromodulín.(43)(97)(98)
Svaly a fyzická výkonnosť
Podľa doterajších výskum sa nezdá, že by chróm pri určitej dávke podporoval rast svalovej hmoty u nejakej populácie.(127)(128)(129)(130) Rovnako zatiaľ žiadna štúdia nenaznačuje, že by chróm zvyšoval výkon svalov.(128)(132) Chróm tiež nemá výrazný vplyv ani na produkciu laktátu, či anaeróbnu kapacitu svalov.(133)(134) Na druhej strane pokusy na potkanoch naznačujú, že chróm zvyšuje zásoby a produkciu glykogénu vo kostrových svaloch, ale neovplyvňuje štiepenie glykogénu na voľnú glukózu.(135)(136)
U obéznych netrénovaných ľudí chróm nedokázal po cvičení ovplyvniť resyntézu glykogénu.(134)
Obezita a množstvo tuku
Suplementácia chrómom má iba zanedbateľný, príp. žiadny efekt na hmotnosť človeka. Niektoré štúdie síce naznačujú mierny efekt, avšak robustné dôkazy o vplyve chrómu na zníženie hmotnosti stále chýbajú.(137)
Pohlavné orgány
Toxická šesťmocná forma chrómu (Cr6+) je toxická pre tkanivo semenníkov.(150)(151) Táto forma sa však nikdy nepoužíva v doplnkoch stravy. Bežne používaná trojmocná forma (Cr3+) nepoškodzuje sertoliho bunky semenníkov ani pri vysokej koncentrácii (do 1mM), čo naznačuje, že táto forma nie je toxická pre tkanivo semenníkov.(152)
Laktácia
Chróm sa vyskytuje v materskom mlieku v koncentrácii 1,73-8,85 nM. Jeho zvýšený príjem v strave matky neovplyvňuje koncentráciu chrómu v materskom mlieku.(153)(154)(155)(156)(157)
Prejavy nedostatku
Hlavným symptómom závažného deficitu chrómu je značne zhoršená tolerancia glukózy a citlivosť buniek voči inzulínu, spojená s chudnutím, neuropatiou (porucha periférnych nervov) a encefalopatiou (porucha fungovania mozgu). Všetky tieto symptómy vymiznú po doplnení chrómu.(8)(9)
Subklinický deficit chrómu je spojený s inzulínovou rezistenciou. Zistilo sa, že koncentrácia chrómu je u diabetikov nižšia.(10)(11)(12) Tiež sa zistilo, že diéta založená na vysokom množstve cukru (35 % denného príjmu kalórií je z cukru) urýchľuje vylučovanie chrómu močom,(13) hoci diéty zložené z potravín s vysokým glykemickým indexom nedokázali u zdravých jedincov akútne ovplyvniť vylučovanie chrómu močom aj keď v priebehu šiestich dní naznačili tento trend.(14)
Predpokladá sa, že toto zvýšené vylučovanie chrómu močom vzniká v dôsledku uvoľňovania chromodulínu z buniek citlivých na inzulín a jeho následným odstraňovaním v moči. Chromodulín je peptid, ktorý sa v krvi kombinuje s chrómom a prenáša ho do buniek, kde naviazaním na inzulínové receptory zosilňuje signalizáciu prítomnosti inzulínu.(15) Chromodulín viaže chróm veľmi pevnou väzbou, čím vzniká komplex, ktorý za fyziologických podmienok nemôže byť rozdelený. Avšak keď poklesne množstvo chrómu, tak inzulínový receptor nie je viac potreba syntetizovať a celý komplex sa musí eliminovať.(15)(16) Túto hypotézu podporuje aj objavenie chromodulínu v moči(17) a jeho tesná korelácia so sekréciou inzulínu.(17)(18)(19)
Množstvo chrómu v moči sa zvyšuje pri vytrvalom cvičení, pričom jeho zvýšenie nie je sprevádzané zvýšením inzulínu v krvnom sére, ani zvýšením iného iónu v moči.(19) Aj napriek tomu, že sa množstvo inzulínu nezvyšuje, dochádza vo svaloch k zvýšenej absorpcii glukózy, ktorá sa začne vo väčšej miere uvoľňovať z pečene.(20)
Následky predávkovania
Trojmocný chróm (aký sa nachádza v doplnkoch stravy) vykazuje toxicitu pri koncentrácii nad 20 µg/mL krvného séra. Jeho toxicita je spojená s oxidačným poškodením DNA.(21) Je to podobný efekt aký má aj šesťmocný chróm, ktorý je (najmä po vdýchnutí) jedovatý už pri oveľa nižšej koncentrácii.(22)(23)(5)
Toxicita
Na pokusoch s potkanmi sa zistilo, že príjem chrómu vysoko prevyšujúci bežné odporučené dávky môže vyvolať poškodenie pečene.(63) Avšak pri iných testoch sa nepreukázalo poškodenie orgánov ani po dvoch mesiacoch podávania 600-1000 µg/kg chrómu v potrave.(170)(171) Poškodenia sa objavujú pri dávkach nad 100 µg/kg váhy, čo naznačuje, že takéto dávky môžu byť pre človeka nebezpečné.(63)
Existuje prípadová štúdia ženy užívajúcej 1200-2400 µg chrómu (vo forme pikolinátu) po dobu 4-5 mesiacov, ktorá vykazovala príznaky poškodenia obličiek.(172) Takisto je zaznamenaný prípad kulturistu, u ktorého sa vyvinula rabdomyolýza vyvolaná užitím 1200 µg chrómu (vo forme pikolinátu) v priebehu 48 hodín.(173)
Prírodné zdroje
Chróm je pre ľudí esenciálnym minerálom a ako doplnok stravy sa často využíva na zlepšenie citlivosti buniek voči inzulínu pri cukrovke.(2)
Chróm sa nachádza v:
- kravskom kolostre (mledzivo produkované mliečnymi žľazami krátko pred pôrodom a počas prvých dní po pôrode), kde býva vo forme oligopeptidu (bohatého na zinok) nazývaného chromodulín, ktorý obsahuje 1 atóm chrómu na 4 aminokyseliny.(3)(4) To predstavuje cca 220 µg chrómu na 1,035 g bielkoviny (193 ng na 1g bielkoviny).(3)
- odstredenom mlieku, kde sa koncentrácia chrómu pohybuje okolo 252 µg chrómu na 1,172 g bielkoviny (215 ng na 1g bielkoviny)(3)
- droždí a pivovarských kvasinkách(28)(29)(30)
Chróm sa vyskytuje vo viacerých formách. Plne oxidovaná forma – Cr6+ je hexavalentná a je vysoko toxická. Používa sa v priemysle.(5) Kvôli toxicite sa táto forma chrómu nikdy nepoužíva v doplnkoch stravy.
V doplnkoch sa používa dvojmocná (divalentná) – Cr2+ alebo stabilnejšia trojmocná (trivalentná) Cr3+ forma chrómu.(2) Najčastejšie sa používa pikolinát chromitý (niekedy uvádzaný ako pikolinát chrómu), čo je vlastne trojmocný chróm viazaný na tri molekuly kyseliny pikolínovej (štruktúrny analóg niacínu, vit. B3). Táto forma je veľmi stabilná a fyziologicky neaktívna až kým voľný chróm.(27) Preto sa považuje za prekurzor chrómu.
Dinikocysteinát chrómu je komplexom chrómu a aminokyseliny L-cysteín. Jedna štúdia uvádza, že na zlepšenie množstva inzulínu a inzulínovej citlivosti buniek je táto forma oveľa účinnejšia ako pikolinát.(37)
Odporúčaná denná dávka (ODD)
Aby sme predišli deficitu potrebujeme v potrave prijímať minimálne 5-20 µg chrómu denne. Odporúčané denné dávky pre ženy sú 21-25 µg; pre mužov 25-35 µg. Počas kojenia sa odporúča dávka 45 µg chrómu denne. Pre deti vo veku 1-3 roky sa odporúča dávka 11 µg; pre deti vo veku 4-8 rokov je odporučená dávka 15 µg.(6)
Štandardná koncentrácia chrómu by mala byť 2,8-45 µg/L v celej krvi a 0,12-2,1 µg/L v krvnom sére.(7)
Vzájomné interakcie
Chróm sa do tela vstrebáva pomocou rovnakého prenášača ako železo a niektoré ďalšie minerály.(59) Hoci pokusy na potkanoch naznačujú, že príjem veľkých dávok chrómu môže negatívne ovplyvniť vstrebávanie železa,(163)(164) štúdie u ľudí užívajúcich normálne dávky chrómu takýto efekt neukázali. Zdá sa, že príjem chrómu v bežných dávkach nemá u ľudí žiadny vplyv na koncentráciu železa.(166)
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